Unveiling the silence: Insights into the language profiles of Indonesian students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Astria Prameswari; Suyono Suyono; Nurhadi

doi:10.29038/pra

Authors

Astria Prameswari * State University of Malang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0189-1514
Suyono State University of Malang, Indonesia
Nurhadi State University of Malang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9029-0256

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29038/pra

Keywords:

Indonesian students, language competence, language disorder, language profile, Autism Spectrum Disorder

Abstract

Indonesian children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) experience communication disorders in inclusive classrooms. Equitable learning must be provided to all students, including those with ASD. To determine the right intervention, an initial study of the ASD language profile is needed so that teachers and parents can choose the right help for their children. This study aimed to observe and report the actual language competence (pragmatics, phonology, morphology, and syntax) of ASD students in Indonesia. Language competence was observed for 6 months in 2024. Nine students, aged 12-16 years (male=7, female=2) in three inclusive schools were observed, tested, and their language competency was recorded. The results of the observations were analyzed and classified as a form of language barrier. The student's language profile shows that there are disorders in pragmatics (understanding spoken and written information), phonology (difficulty in pronunciation of the sounds /t/, /s/, and /h/), morphology (using some affixes in words and disorders in variations of word, difficulty in using verbs and nouns at the same time), and syntax (difficulty in constructing complex and contextual sentences). Students also exhibit echolalia, or word repetition, when speaking and writing. Therefore, Indonesian ASD students experience language barriers in the classroom. These show up as unique challenges in their pragmatic, phonological, morphological, and syntactic abilities. With these findings, it is hoped that the language profile of the impaired will be taken into consideration to provide learning interventions according to the character of Indonesian ASD students' language barriers.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express sincere gratitude to the Indonesian Education Scholarship, Center for Higher Education Funding and Assesment, and Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education for their support. This article was made possible in part by the facilitation and resources provided by these institutions.

Disclosure Statement

The authors reported no potential conflicts of interest.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Aalto, E., Saaristo-Helin, K., & Stolt, S. (2022). Auditory Word Recognition Ability in Babble Noise and Phonological Development in Children at 3;6 Years of Age. Language Learning and Development, 00(00), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2022.2060833

Abner, N., Namboodiripad, S., Spaepen, E., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2022). Emergent Morphology in Child Homesign: Evidence from Number Language. Language Learning and Development, 18(1), 16–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2021.1922281

Arifuddin, A. (2021). Neuropsikolinguistik (1st ed., Issue January). Rajagrafinfo.

Bak, M. S., Dueñas, A. D., Avendaño, S. M., Graham, A. C., & Stanley, T. (2021). Tact instruction for children with autism spectrum disorder: A review. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 6. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941521999010

Boucher, J., & Anns, S. (2018). Memory, learning and language in autism spectrum disorder. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 3. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 2396941517742078

Budianingsih, T., Febriantini, W. A., Fitriati, R., & Oktaviani, L. (2021). an Analysis of Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication in Autistic Children. Jurnal Al-Azhar Indonesia Seri Humaniora, 3(1), 137. https://doi.org/10.33365/jorle.v2i1.923

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspect of The Theory of Syntax (1st ed.). The MIT Press.

Clarke, K. A. (2019). A review of language regression in autism spectrum disorder and the role of language theories: Towards explanation. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941519889227

Dardjowodjojo, S. (2018). Psikolinguistik-Pengantar Pemahaman Bahasa Manusia (8th ed.). Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia.

Daulay, N.-, Kemmerer, D., Botting, N., Cook, V., Newson, M., Ning, C., Budianingsih, T., Mael, M. R., Sastra, R. N. G., Wen, X., Taylor, J. R., Mills, K. A., Comber, B., Geeraerts, D., Cuyckens, H., & Jeklin, A. (2014). Geeraerts, Cuyckens - Unknown - The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar: An Introduction, 17(1), 91–103. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351034708

Delehanty, A. D., Stronach, S., Guthrie, W., Slate, E., & Wetherby, A. M. (2018). Verbal and nonverbal outcomes of toddlers with and without autism spectrum disorder, language delay, and global developmental delay. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 3. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941518764764

Ediyanto, E., & Efendi, M. (2021). It is Necessary to Develop an Assessment System that all Students can accept at the Universitas Negeri Malang : An Editorial Board Report. 5(2), 1–2.

Efendi, M., Pradipta, R. F., Dewantoro, D. A., Ummah, U. S., Ediyanto, E., & Yasin, M. (2022). Inclusive education for student with special needs at Indonesian public schools. International Journal of Instruction, 15(2), 967–980. https://doi.org/10.29333/ iji.2022.15253a

Fatimah, S. (2021). Kemampuan Anak Sindrom Autistik dalam Mengartikulasikan Bunyi Konsonan. Syntax Fusion: Jurnal Nasional Indonesia, 1(9), 1–23.

Fauziyah, U. (2019). Pengembangan Buku Panduan Metode Discrete Trial training untuk Meningkatkan Kemampuan Bahasa Reseptif Siswa Autis [Universitas Negeri Malang]. http://repository.um.ac.id/id/eprint/119800

Favot, K., Carter, M., & Stephenson, J. (2022). The effects of an oral narrative intervention on the fictional narratives of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language Disorder. Journal of Behavioral Education, 31(4), 657–678. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10864-021-09430-9

Fernandes, F. D. M., Amato, C. A. H., Defense-Netrval, D. A., & Molini-Avejonas, D. R. (2014). Speech-language intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder in Brazil. Topics in Language Disorders, 34(2), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1097/ TLD.0000000000000011

Franchini, M., Duku, E., Armstrong, V., Brian, J., Bryson, S. E., Garon, N., Roberts, W., Roncadin, C., Zwaigenbaum, L., & Smith, I. M. (2018). Variability in verbal and nonverbal communication in infants at risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Predictors and Outcomes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(10), 3417–3431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3607-9

Haebig, E., Saffran, J. R., & Ellis Weismer, S. (2017). Statistical word learning in children with autism spectrum disorder and specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58(11), 1251–1263. https://doi.org/10. 1111/jcpp.12734

Joseph, R. M., Skwerer, D. P., Eggleston, B., Meyer, S. R., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2019). An experimental study of word learning in minimally verbal children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Autism & Developmental Language Impairments, 4, 239694151983471. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396941519834717

Kemdikbud. (2022). Panduan Pelaksanaan Pendidikan Inklusif. https://kurikulum.kem¬di¬k-bud.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Panduan-Pelaksanaan-Pendidikan-Inklusif.pdf

Kheir El-Din, S. T., & Sallam, Y. (2015). Grammatical comprehension in developmental semantic-pragmatic disorder. The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology, 31(3), 176–179. https://doi.org/10.4103/1012-5574.161607

Koide, G. (2003). Verbal and non-verbal communication. Trends in the Sciences, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.5363/tits.8.3_28

Koizumi, M., & Kojima, M. (2022). Syntactic development and verbal short-term memory of children with autism spectrum disorders having intellectual disabilities and children with down syndrome. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/23969415221109690

Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. In Language Education (1st ed.). Pergamon Press Inc.

Lambrev, V., Kirova, A., & Prochner, L. (2020). Education reforms for inclusion? Interrogating policy-practice disjunctions in early childhood education in Bulgaria. Education Inquiry, 11(2), 126–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2019.1708616

Lin, K. R., Wisman Weil, L., Thurm, A., Lord, C., & Luyster, R. J. (2022). Word imageability is associated with expressive vocabulary in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2396 9415221085827

Maksimović, S., Marisavljević, M., Stanojević, N., Ćirović, M., Punišić, S., Adamović, T., Đorđević, J., Krgović, I., & Subotić, M. (2023). Importance of Early Intervention in Reducing Autistic Symptoms and Speech–Language Deficits in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Children, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/children10010122

Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis. A Methods Sourcebook Edition 3 (3rd ed.). SAGE.

Mohammadzaheri, F., Koegel, L. K., Bakhshi, E., Khosrowabadi, R., & Soleymani, Z. (2022). The Effect of Teaching Initiations on the Communication of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(6), 2598–2609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05153-y

Mouga, S., Correia, B. R., Café, C., Duque, F., & Oliveira, G. (2020). Language Predictors in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Insights from Neurodevelopmental Profile in a Longitudinal Perspective. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 48(1), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00578-7

Naigles, L. R. (2021). It Takes All Kinds (of Information) to Learn a Language: Investigating the Language Comprehension of Typical Children and Children With Autism. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214 20969404

Njudang, E., Ranimpi, Y. Y., & Prayitno, I. S. P. (2020). Pengaruh Metode Pembelajaran Musikal bagi Kemampuan Kognitif Anak Autis di SLB Negeri Manekat Niki-Niki. JPK (Jurnal Pendidikan Khusus), 16(1), 8–18. https://doi.org/10.21831/jpk.v16i1.31057

Prameswari, A., Suyono, & Nurhadi. (2024). Renewal of Indonesian Language Learning in Indonesia. In K. Andayani, S. Karmina, & L. A. Rahmania (Eds.), Inclusive, Sustainable, and Transformasional Education in Arts and Literature. Routledge. https://doi.org/ 10.1201.9781003484318-13

Prasetyoningsih, L. S. A. (2016). Pengembangan Tindak Bahasa Terapi dalam Intervensi Anak Autis Spektrum Perilaku. LITERA, 15(1), 120–127.

Prescott, K. E., & Ellis Weismer, S. (2022). Children with ASD and Communication Regression: Examining Pre-Loss Skills and Later Language Outcomes Through the Preschool Years. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(5), 1956–1970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05098-2

Reindal, L., Nærland, T., Weidle, B., Lydersen, S., Andreassen, O. A., & Sund, A. M. (2023). Structural and Pragmatic Language Impairments in Children Evaluated for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 701–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04853-1

Ren, L., & Kasuma, S. A. A. (2025). Latent Profile Analysis for the Investigation of Emotional Factors in Second Language Acquisition. Language Related Research, 16(1), 87–113. https://doi.org/10.29252/LRR.16.1.4

Ricketts, J., Dockrell, J. E., Patel, N., Charman, T., & Lindsay, G. (2015). Do children with specific language impairment and autism spectrum disorders benefit from the presence of orthography when learning new spoken words? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 134, 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.01.015

Rustandar, A., & Widinarsih, D. (2023). Metode dan Media Pembelajaran untuk Pendidikan Inklusi bagi Penyandang Autis di Indonesia. Jurnal Pendidikan Kebutuhan, 7(1), 38–56. https://jpkk.ppj.unp.ac.id/index.php/jpkk/article/view/743

Sari, N. W. A. P., & Pratiwi, H. A. (2020). Pemerolehan Bahasa Anak Usia 5 Tahun (Sebuah Kajian Studi Kasus). Seminar Internasional Riksa Bahasa XIII, 709–714.

Shalsabilla, A. (2023). Optimalisasi Kemampuan Bahasa Reseptif dan Ekspresif Anak dengan Autisme Melalui Teknik Discrete Trial Training (DTT) di Omah Terapi Autis Malang [Universitas Negeri Malang]. https://repository.um.ac.id/295857

Sirkko, R., & Takala, M. (2022). Distance education for pupils with intellectual disabilities–teachers’ experiences. Education Inquiry, 00(00), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 20004508.2022.2073054

Slušná, D., Rodríguez, A., Salvadó, B., Vicente, A., & Hinzen, W. (2021). Relations between language, non-verbal cognition, and conceptualization in non- or minimally verbal individuals with ASD across the lifespan. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 6. https://doi.org/10.1177/23969415211053264

Sukmadinata, N. S. (2016). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan (12th ed.). PT Remaja Rosdakarya.

Sulistyowati, H., Mayasari, D., & Hastining, S. D. (2022). Pemerolehan Kosa Kata Anak Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Jurnal Obsesi: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 6(4), 3091–3099. https://doi.org/10.31004/obsesi.v6i4.2374

Sundqvist, C., Björk-Åman, C., & Ström, K. (2020). Special teachers and the use of co-teaching in Swedish-speaking schools in Finland. Education Inquiry, 12(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2020.1793490

Tarigan, R. M. (2019). Pemerolehan Sintaksis Pada Anak Autisme. Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Dan Sastra Indonesia, 3(2), 151–156.

Tarvainen, S., Stolt, S., & Launonen, K. (2020). Oral language comprehension interventions in 1–8-year-old children with language disorders or difficulties: A systematic scoping review. Autism and Developmental Language Impairments, 5. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 2396941520946999

Warren, N., Eatchel, B., Kirby, A. V., Diener, M., Wright, C., & D’Astous, V. (2021). Parent-identified strengths of autistic youth. Autism, 25(1), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1362361320945556

Xu, M. X., & Ju, X. Da. (2023). Abnormal Brain Structure Is Associated with Social and Communication Deficits in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Analysis. Brain Sciences, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13050779