Neural correlates of higher-order thinking during speech production: A sLORETA study of superior frontal gyrus activity
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29038/eejpl.2026.13.1.nurKeywords:
superior frontal gyrus, Brodmann Area 10, higher-order thinking skills, sLORETA, EEG, speech production, neurolinguisticsAbstract
Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) play a central role in 21st-century education, yet the neural mechanisms underlying HOTS during speech production remain poorly understood. This study investigated superior frontal gyrus (SFG) activity during HOTS-related verbal tasks using standardized low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA). Twenty-four right-handed university students (12 males, 12 females; mean age = 19.1 ± 0.8 years, range 18–20) performed nine HOTS verbal production tasks while a 19-channel EEG was recorded. sLORETA source analysis localized peak neural activity to Brodmann Area 10 (BA10) of the SFG across all conditions. The highest peak activation occurred during the Comparing task (M = 4.82 A/m², SD = .45), Detailing (M = 4.67 A/m², SD = .38), and Clarifying (M = 4.53 A/m², SD = .42), with all HOTS conditions showing very large effect sizes relative to baseline (Cohen’s d = 5.10–8.04). Temporal dynamics revealed sustained SFG engagement during Detailing (M = 12.4 seconds, SD = 3.2) compared to other HOTS tasks (M = 8.6 seconds, SD = 2.7; t(23) = 4.8, p < .001). SFG activation during the Clarifying stage was significantly correlated with task performance quality (r = .68, p < .001). These results establish the SFG BA10 as a functional hub for cognitive integration during verbal higher-order thinking, with direct implications for educational neuroscience, neurolinguistics, and instructional design.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Directorate of Research and Community Service (Direktorat Penelitian dan Pengabdian kepada Masyarakat), Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
CRediT Statement
Jatmika Nurhadi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Reviewing & Editing, Visualization; Dadang Sudana: Validation, Writing – Reviewing & Editing, Supervision.
Disclosure Statement
The authors reported no potential conflicts of interest.
Generative AI Statement
Artificial intelligence-based language tools (DeepL and Grammarly) were used to assist with the translation, drafting, and editing of the manuscript. All EEG data collection, sLORETA analysis, statistical calculations, and scientific interpretation were performed entirely by the research team. The text drafted with the assistance of AI has been reviewed, verified, and approved by all authors.
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